Effects of PFAS in Drinking Water on Health, the Environment & the Economy

More than 172 million Americans are currently drinking water laced with PFAS. The annual cost runs at least $8 billion due to medical bills, lost productivity, and shortened lives. 

These forever chemicals leach from agricultural waste, seep through contaminated soils, and slip past conventional treatment systems before reaching the groundwater millions of households depend on. 

Another major source is industrial discharge and manufacturing runoff. Facilities that produce or use PFAS in non-stick coatings, waterproof textiles, stain-resistant materials, packaging, and firefighting foams can release these chemicals into nearby soil and waterways. Over time, PFAS can migrate from these areas into groundwater supplies.

The health and economic consequences are serious and well-documented. So are the solutions, from household filters to large-scale drinking water treatment, wastewater treatment, and PFAS adsorption and remediation technologies built on sustainable activated carbon. 

This article covers where PFAS come from, what they do to your body and the environment, what they cost, and what it takes to remove them.

What Are PFAS (Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances)?

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a large group of synthetic chemicals used across industry and consumer products since the 1940s. 

The carbon-fluorine bond at their core is one of the strongest in chemistry, which means these chemicals don't break down naturally in the environment or in the human body. 

That's why they've earned the nickname "forever chemicals." There are thousands of PFAS chemicals, and many are found in the blood of people and animals worldwide.

They are also present at low levels in a variety of food products and in the environment.

Long-Chain vs. Short-Chain PFAS Compounds

Long-chain PFAS include perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) with seven or more fluorinated carbon atoms and perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids (PFSAs) with six or more fluorinated carbon atoms. 

Short-chain PFAS fall below those thresholds. PFOA (Perfluorooctanoic acid) and PFOS (Perfluorooctane Sulfonate) are the most widely studied long-chain examples, as noted in the EPA's PFAS drinking water health effects overview.

Short-chain PFAS were introduced to replace long-chain compounds, which have since been phased out. 

How Does PFAS End Up in Drinking Water?

Agricultural Runoff

When fields are irrigated with PFAS-contaminated water or treated with certain pesticides, these chemicals leach into the surrounding soil. 

Rain and irrigation then carry them into nearby streams, rivers, and groundwater. Biosolids from wastewater treatment plants used as fertilizer on agricultural lands can affect ground and surface water and animals that graze on the land. 

Once in the soil, PFAS can persist and continue migrating toward aquifers for years.

Industrial and Chemical Manufacturing Discharge

Manufacturing or chemical production facilities that produce or use PFAS include chrome plating, electronics, and certain textile and paper manufacturers. 

Even when a facility operates within older discharge permits, those permits weren't designed to account for PFAS, meaning decades of contamination may have built up in surrounding water sources. 

The EPA's PFAS Strategic Roadmap has specifically targeted industrial discharge as a key area for restriction and enforcement.

Firefighting Foam Contamination

Aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) has been one of the most significant contributors to PFAS contamination in US water supplies, relying heavily on PFAS for its effectiveness against flammable liquid fires. 

These foams are used in training and emergency response events at airports, shipyards, military bases, firefighting training facilities, chemical plants, and refineries. 

Because training exercises were often conducted on open ground, PFAS soaked into the soil and eventually reached groundwater systems used for drinking.

Military Base Contamination

Military installations represent some of the most heavily contaminated PFAS sites in the country, largely because of extensive AFFF use in training and emergency operations. 

The Environmental Working Group has mapped PFAS contamination at military installations across the country, with affected sites detected in surrounding groundwater and drinking water sources. 

Communities near these bases, many of which depend on private wells, have faced elevated PFAS exposure with little warning. 

Biosolid Application

Biosolids are the organic material produced during wastewater treatment and are widely spread on farmland as fertilizer. 

While this sounds beneficial, biosolids can carry significant PFAS loads absorbed from industrial and household effluent. 

When applied to fields, PFAS migrate through the soil into groundwater. This pathway is especially concerning in rural areas where residents rely on private wells that aren't subject to the same monitoring requirements as public water systems.

Landfills and Wastewater Treatment

PFAS-containing products discarded in landfills generate leachate, the liquid that percolates through waste and collects at the base. 

When leachate management systems fail or overflow, PFAS-laden liquid can enter surrounding soil and groundwater. 

Soil and water at or near landfills, disposal sites, and hazardous waste sites are among the locations where PFAS contamination is found. 

Conventional wastewater treatment plants weren't built to remove PFAS, so much of what enters the system passes through and is discharged into surface water or remains in biosolids.

How Widespread Is PFAS Contamination in US Drinking Water?

At least 45% of the nation's tap water is estimated to contain one or more PFAS, according to a study by the US Geological Survey (USGS). 

The study tested for 32 individual PFAS compounds and represents the first time anyone has tested for and compared PFAS in tap water from both private and government-regulated public water supplies on a broad national scale. 

The USGS found the highest contamination rates near the Great Plains, Great Lakes, Eastern Seaboard, and Central and Southern California regions.

Also, the latest EPA data from tested public drinking water systems show 9,552 US sites with detectable PFAS levels, exposing more than 172 million people to contaminated drinking water. 

You can view the Environmental Working Group's interactive map to identify sites near you.

Where Does PFAS Go in Your Body?

The Blood

The bloodstream is the primary distribution system for PFAS in the body. 

After absorption through the gastrointestinal tract, PFAS bind tightly to plasma proteins, circulate throughout the body, and are difficult to excrete. 

This protein-binding behavior is why blood serum testing is the standard method used to measure PFAS exposure in humans, as confirmed by the ATSDR's guidance on estimating blood levels. 

People with occupational exposure, such as firefighters and chemical plant workers, tend to have significantly higher blood levels.

The Liver

The liver is a primary accumulation site for many PFAS, including PFOA and PFOS. Animal studies have found that PFAS can cause damage to the liver and the immune system. 

In human studies, changes in liver enzyme levels have been associated with exposure to PFOA, PFOS, and PFHxS (Perfluorohexanesulfonic acid), as noted in the ATSDR PFAS health effects fact sheet. 

This matters because liver function directly affects cholesterol metabolism, detoxification, and hormone regulation.

The Kidneys

The kidneys play a key role in how PFAS are eventually excreted, but the process is slow and incomplete for many compounds. 

Some PFAS undergo reabsorption in the kidneys rather than being filtered out, contributing to their long retention in the body. 

Kidney cancer, specifically renal cell carcinoma, is one of the more consistently documented cancer associations with PFOA exposure in occupational and community studies.

How Long Does PFAS Stay in the Body?

PFOS has an estimated half-life (the time required for a substance to reduce to half of its initial value) of approximately five years, while PFOA sits at around 2 to 4 years.

Half-lives among short-chain PFAS vary widely by compound. 

PFBS clears relatively quickly at under a year, while PFHxS can actually persist longer than PFOA, which is part of why the industry argument that short-chain replacements were safer has come under scrutiny. 

Their greater mobility in water systems means exposure is often continuous, effectively reducing that advantage.

Because PFAS accumulate with ongoing exposure, people who have consumed contaminated water for many years may carry a body burden reflecting decades of buildup. 

Reducing exposure is the most effective way to allow the body to gradually lower its PFAS levels, though the process takes years even after exposure stops.

How Can You Tell If You Have PFAS in Your Body?

PFAS does not produce a distinct, recognizable symptom profile. You can't gauge how you feel and determine whether you've been exposed. 

The health effects associated with PFAS develop slowly and overlap with conditions caused by many other factors. Blood testing is the most reliable way to measure PFAS levels if you've been exposed to contaminated water. 

Epidemiological evidence suggests associations between increases in exposure to specific PFAS and certain health effects, such as increases in cholesterol levels, lower antibody response to some vaccines, changes in liver enzymes, and pregnancy-induced hypertension. 

If your healthcare provider suspects significant PFAS exposure, they may order blood tests to assess PFAS levels and evaluate related biomarkers, including thyroid function, liver enzymes, cholesterol, and kidney function. 

The ATSDR also provides clinical resources and guidance on blood testing to help healthcare providers interpret results and manage patients with documented exposure.

What Are the Health Effects of PFAS Exposure?

Cancer

Increased risk of some cancers, including prostate, kidney, and testicular cancers, has been observed in studies of PFAS-exposed populations. 

Some PFAS may also be more likely to lead to breast cancer, ovarian cancer, endometrial cancer, liver cancer, or thyroid cancer. 

PFOA has been classified as a possible human carcinogen based on occupational and community exposure research, and the American Cancer Society continues to track emerging findings on PFOA-linked cancer risk.

Endocrine Disruption

PFAS interfere with the endocrine system by mimicking or blocking hormone signals.

Research suggests both short- and long-chain PFAS can disrupt how your hormones work.

Two short-chain PFAS, PFBS and PFHxS, may specifically disrupt your thyroid gland. 

Thyroid disruption has downstream effects on metabolism, weight regulation, cardiovascular function, and cognitive development. 

The NIEHS actively funds research into how PFAS-driven endocrine disruption develops across the lifespan.

Reproductive Effects

Reproductive effects such as decreased fertility and increased high blood pressure in pregnant women have been associated with PFAS exposure. 

Studies have also found associations between PFAS blood levels and reduced sperm quality in men and fertility complications in women. 

Adults of reproductive age may be among those with the highest ongoing exposure through contaminated drinking water.

Developmental Effects

Developmental effects or delays in children, including low birth weight, accelerated puberty, bone variations, and behavioral changes, have been observed in association with PFAS exposure. 

A University of Arizona-led study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) found that mothers receiving water from wells downstream of PFAS-contaminated sites had higher first-year infant mortality, more preterm births, and more births with infants weighing less than 5.5 pounds.

Immune System Impairment

According to the ATSDR PFAS health effects fact sheet, a lower antibody response to some vaccines has been associated with exposure to PFOA, PFOS, PFHxS, and PFDA. 

This means people with higher PFAS body burdens may mount weaker immune responses to vaccines. 

Children are especially susceptible, since early PFAS exposure during immune system development can have lasting effects on vaccine efficacy and overall immune function.

Cardiovascular Effects

Elevated cholesterol is one of the most consistently replicated findings in PFAS research. 

Increases in cholesterol levels have been observed in association with PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, and PFDA exposure, as documented in the ATSDR PFAS health effects fact sheet. 

Higher cholesterol directly increases cardiovascular risk, and some studies have also found associations between PFAS exposure and hypertension. 

Pregnancy-induced hypertension and preeclampsia have been specifically linked to PFOA and PFOS.

Metabolic Effects

Studies suggest PFAS can lead to higher levels of a hormone called thyrotropin, which can contribute to obesity, diabetes, and chronic kidney disease. 

This ties PFAS exposure to some of the most prevalent chronic diseases in the US. 

The NIEHS continues to fund research into these metabolic connections and their long-term consequences.

Effect of PFAS Contamination in the Environment

Contamination in Soil

PFAS bind to soil particles and organic matter, where they can persist for decades. 

Agricultural fields treated with PFAS-containing biosolids or irrigated with contaminated water accumulate these chemicals in ways that affect both crop uptake and long-term groundwater quality. 

Soil contamination near industrial sites, military installations, and landfills tends to be far more concentrated and often serves as a slow-release source of PFAS into surrounding water systems. 

Research published in Science of the Total Environment continues to shed light on how PFAS migrate through different soil types toward aquifers.

Contamination in Surface Water and Groundwater

Surface water and groundwater are the main pathways through which PFAS reach drinking water systems. 

Industrial discharges, landfill leachate, AFFF runoff, and biosolid application all contribute to contamination that then infiltrates aquifers. 

Their chemical stability means PFAS resist natural breakdown and accumulate in soil, water, and even the human body over time, demanding a remediation approach that is both effective and sustainable. 

Once in an aquifer, PFAS can spread over large distances and reach wells far from the original contamination source.

Contamination in Air

Industrial facilities that manufacture or process PFAS can release these chemicals into the air, which then deposit onto soil and surface water through dry and wet deposition. 

Inhalation exposure is generally lower than drinking water exposure, but it adds to overall body burden, especially for workers in high-exposure occupational settings. 

The EPA's air measurement methods for PFAS, including OTM-50, were finalized in 2024 to better detect airborne fluorinated compounds.

Contamination in Wildlife and the Food Chain

PFAS bioaccumulate in living organisms. Fish in contaminated water absorb PFAS through their gills and from their food, and these concentrations are magnified as you move up the food chain. 

Fish caught from contaminated water bodies and dairy products from livestock exposed to PFAS are among the food sources through which people can be exposed, as noted in the EPA's current understanding of PFAS risks. 

Wildlife studies have also found PFAS in polar bears, dolphins, and birds of prey far from industrial centers, demonstrating how effectively these chemicals move through global ecosystems.

The Economic Costs of PFAS Contamination

Water Infrastructure and Treatment Costs for Municipal Governments

Treating PFAS out of drinking water requires specialized technologies that most municipal systems weren't built to accommodate. 

Retrofitting existing plants with activated carbon filtration or ion exchange systems carries enormous capital and operational costs, especially for smaller utilities. 

In April 2024, the EPA issued the first-ever national, legally enforceable drinking water standard.

They also concurrently announced a further $1 billion to help states and territories implement PFAS testing and treatment at public water systems and to help owners of private wells address PFAS contamination. 

Even with federal support, many municipalities face funding gaps requiring sustained investment over decades.

Regulatory Monitoring and Compliance Costs

Complying with PFAS regulations requires water utilities to invest in sampling equipment, certified laboratory analysis, reporting infrastructure, and staff training. 

EPA is conducting the most comprehensive monitoring effort for PFAS ever, covering every large and midsize public water system in America and hundreds of small water systems through the fifth Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (UCMR 5). 

For small water systems, compliance costs can be disproportionately heavy relative to their operating budgets.

Healthcare Costs

A University of Arizona-led study found that PFAS contamination in drinking water imposes social costs of at least $8 billion annually on the contiguous US, encompassing medical care, long-term health impacts, and reduced lifetime earnings. 

Treating cancers, managing metabolic disorders, addressing reproductive complications, and caring for developmentally affected children all impose direct costs on individuals, insurers, and public health systems.

Productivity Losses Across the US

PFAS-related health conditions reduce workforce productivity, increase disability rates, and shorten working lives. 

The University of Arizona researchers noted that the $8 billion annual figure represents the lowest end of the economic impact.

They also noted that the potential health benefits of PFAS cleanup and regulation may be substantial.  

Infant mortality, developmental delays, and chronic disease all translate into measurable reductions in human capital with effects that compound across a lifetime.

Long-Term Economic Burden on Future Generations

Cleanup of contaminated sites, including military installations and legacy industrial properties, will take decades and cost hundreds of billions of dollars. 

Children exposed in utero and in early life will carry the health consequences of that exposure throughout their lives. 

As University of Arizona economist Derek Lemoine put it in the PNAS, "removing PFAS from drinking water not only results in drastically improved health outcomes, it also produces a significant long-term economic benefit."

How Is PFAS Removed From Drinking Water?

Point-of-Use Filters for Households

For households concerned about PFAS in their tap water, certified point-of-use filters offer a practical and affordable solution. 

To remove a specific contaminant like PFAS, choose a water filtration device that is independently certified by a recognized lab such as the National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) or the Water Quality Association (WQA). 

Look for filters certified to NSF/ANSI 53 for activated carbon systems or NSF/ANSI 58 for reverse osmosis systems, with an explicit PFAS removal claim. 

These certifications confirm the product has been independently validated for ongoing performance, not just a single manufacturer test.

Hyera's Activated Carbon Solutions

When municipalities need a sustainable, high-performing path to PFAS removal, activated carbon is one of the most validated treatment options available. 

Our American Engineered Carbon (AEC) is made from renewable materials like nut shells and sustainably harvested wood, manufactured using carbon-negative processes, so addressing PFAS contamination doesn't come at an additional environmental cost.

We offer both granular activated carbon (GAC) for long-term PFAS treatment in continuous-flow municipal systems and powdered activated carbon (PAC) for faster dosing and emergency response scenarios. 

Both are validated for PFAS adsorption and remediation and integrate into existing treatment trains without significant infrastructure overhauls. 

If your municipality is managing PFAS compliance, explore our drinking water treatment and wastewater treatment solutions or contact us to find out which fits your treatment infrastructure.

Reverse Osmosis

Reverse osmosis (RO) systems force water through a semi-permeable membrane that blocks PFAS molecules along with a broad range of other contaminants. 

RO is one of the most effective household technologies for PFAS removal and is certified under NSF/ANSI 58 when it carries an explicit PFAS claim. 

The main tradeoff is water waste, since RO systems typically discard several gallons for every gallon of treated water they produce. 

For under-sink point-of-use applications, RO remains a reliable and well-validated option. 

Ion Exchange Resin

Ion exchange resins, especially single-use anion exchange resins engineered for PFAS, have emerged as a high-efficiency treatment option for both municipal and industrial applications. 

These resins attract and bind PFAS molecules based on charge interactions, achieving very low treated-water PFAS concentrations. 

Ion exchange systems are often deployed alongside activated carbon in municipal treatment trains to optimize overall PFAS removal efficiency. 

Water utilities can search for certified products through the NSF, WQA, and the International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO).

What Regulatory Bodies Are Doing About PFAS in Drinking Water

EPA Regulatory Action on PFAS Drinking Water Standards

In April 2024, the EPA issued the first-ever national, legally enforceable drinking water standard for PFAS, designed to reduce exposure for approximately 100 million people and prevent thousands of deaths. 

The rule sets maximum contaminant levels for PFOA and PFOS individually, as well as for four other PFAS in combination. 

In May 2025, however, the agency announced it would rescind limits on four of those compounds and delay enforcement on PFOA and PFOS. The EPA's PFAS Strategic Roadmap continues to guide broader work on restricting, remediating, and researching PFAS.

ATSDR Health Guidance on PFAS Exposure

The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) operates under the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

They translate PFAS science into clinical and public health guidance on exposure pathways, blood testing, and clinical management. 

The agency's minimum risk levels and exposure assessments form the scientific basis for much of the regulatory and clinical decision-making around PFAS in the US.

WHO and the Global Policy Response

The World Health Organization (WHO) has established provisional guideline values for PFAS in drinking water as part of its Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. 

Some of the most hazardous long-chain PFAS are now listed under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, reflecting a growing international consensus that these chemicals require coordinated global action.

Addressing the PFAS Crisis Starts With the Right Partners

Forever chemicals are present in nearly half of the nation's tap water. The longer they go unaddressed, the greater the financial and public health toll on municipalities and future generations. 

Reducing those costs requires treatment technologies that are not only effective but sustainable. 

Hyera manufactures activated carbon from renewable agricultural byproducts using carbon-negative processes and has proven performance in both drinking water and wastewater applications.

If your municipality is navigating PFAS compliance or looking to upgrade its treatment infrastructure, contact us to find out how our high-performing activated carbon solutions can help.

Frequently Asked Questions

What has PFAS in it?

PFAS show up in non-stick cookware, stain-resistant fabrics, water-resistant clothing, food packaging, firefighting foam, and certain cosmetics and cleaning products. They're also found in drinking water, soil near waste sites, and fish caught from contaminated water bodies.

What are the most harmful PFAS?

PFOA and PFOS are the most studied and widely considered the most harmful, linked to cancer, immune suppression, reproductive harm, and endocrine disruption. Both have been phased out of US manufacturing but remain in soils and continue to contaminate groundwater.

Which is worse? PFOS or PFOA?

Both are dangerous and neither is safe. PFOA carries stronger associations with kidney and testicular cancer, while PFOS is more closely linked to immune suppression and elevated cholesterol. The more practical concern is that both are still present in contaminated water supplies across the US.

Who is most vulnerable to PFAS health risks?

Children, pregnant women, and infants face the highest risk. Children consume more water, food, and air relative to their body weight, increasing their exposure. Pregnant women who drink contaminated water may pass PFAS to developing babies. People who work with AFFF or near PFAS manufacturing sites also face elevated exposure.

About Hyera

Hyera delivers high-quality and consistent activated carbon products, specifically designed to replace coal-based activated carbon products.